1.Air Craft Theory
The United States Air Force facility commonly known as Area 51 is a remote detachment of Edwards Air Force Base, within the Nevada Test and Training Range. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the correct names for the facility are Homey Airport (ICAO: KXTA) and Groom Lake,[2][3] though the name Area 51 was used in a CIA document from the Vietnam War.[4] Other names used for the facility include Dreamland,[5] and nicknames Paradise Ranch,[6] Home Base and Watertown.[7] The special use airspace around the field is referred to as a Restricted Area 4808 North (R-4808N).[8]
The base's current primary purpose is publicly unknown; however, based on historical evidence, it most likely supports development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems (black projects).[9] The intense secrecy surrounding the base has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component to unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore.[10][11] Although the base has never been declared a secret base, all research and occurrences in Area 51 are Top Secret/Sensitive Compartmented Information (TS/SCI).[10] In July 2013, following an FOIA request filed in 2005, the CIA publicly acknowledged the existence of the base for the first time, declassifying documents detailing the history and purpose of Area 51.[12]
Area 51 is located in the southern portion of Nevada in the western United States, 83 miles (134 km) north-northwest of Las Vegas. Situated at its center, on the southern shore of Groom Lake, is a large military airfield. The site was acquired by the United States Air Force in 1955, primarily for the flight testing of the Lockheed U-2 aircraft.[12] The area around Area 51, including the small town of Rachel on the aptly named "Extraterrestrial Highway", is a popular tourist destination.
Geography
Area 51
Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site, the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS.[14][15][16] The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is 44 miles (71 km) southwest of Groom Lake.
Groom Lake
Nevada Test Range topographic chart centered on Groom Lake
History
The origin of the Area 51 name is unclear. The most accepted comes from a grid numbering system of the area by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC); while Area 51 isn't part of this system, it is adjacent to Area 15. Another explanation is that 51 was used because it was unlikely that the AEC would use the number.[18]Groom Lake
Main article: Silver mining in Nevada
Lead and silver were discovered in the southern part of the Groom Range in 1864,[19] and the English Groome Lead Mines Limited
company financed the Conception Mines in the 1870s, giving the district
its name (nearby mines included Maria, Willow and White Lake).[20]
The interests in Groom were acquired by J. B. Osborne and partners and
patented in 1876, and his son acquired the interests in the 1890s.[20] Claims were incorporated as two 1916 companies with mining continuing until 1918 and resuming after World War II until the early 1950s.[20]World War II
The airfield on the Groom Lake site began service in 1942 as Indian Springs Air Force Auxiliary Field,[21] and consisted of two dirt 5000 feet runways aligned NE/SW, NW/SE 37°16′35″N 115°45′20″W. The airfield may have been used for bombing and artillery practice; bomb craters are still visible in the vicinity.[22]U-2 program
Main article: Lockheed U-2
Watertown ("The Ranch") with U-2 flight line
As part of the project, the director, Richard M. Bissell, Jr., understood that, given the extreme secrecy enveloping the project, the flight test and pilot training programs could not be conducted at Edwards Air Force Base or Lockheed's Palmdale facility. A search for a suitable testing site for the U-2 was conducted under the same extreme security as the rest of the project.[23]
He notified Lockheed, who sent an inspection team out to Groom Lake. According to Lockheed's U-2 designer Kelly Johnson:[23]
... We flew over it and within thirty seconds, you knew that was the place ... it was right by a dry lake. Man alive, we looked at that lake, and we all looked at each other. It was another Edwards, so we wheeled around, landed on that lake, taxied up to one end of it. It was a perfect natural landing field ... as smooth as a billiard table without anything being done to it". Johnson used a compass to lay out the direction of the first runway. The place was called "Groom Lake".The lakebed made an ideal strip from which they could test aircraft, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter, about 100 miles north of Las Vegas, protected the test site from visitors.[24] The CIA asked the AEC to acquire the land, designated "Area 51" on the map, and add it to the Nevada Test Site.[25]:56–57
Johnson named the area "Paradise Ranch" to encourage workers to move to a place that the CIA's official history of the U-2 project would later describe as "the new facility in the middle of nowhere"; the name became shortened to "the Ranch".[25]:57 On 4 May 1955, a survey team arrived at Groom Lake and laid out a 5,000-foot (1,500 m), north-south runway on the southwest corner of the lakebed and designated a site for a base support facility. "The Ranch", also known as Site II, initially consisted of little more than a few shelters, workshops and trailer homes in which to house its small team.[24] In a little over three months, the base consisted of a single, paved runway, three hangars, a control tower, and rudimentary accommodations for test personnel. The base's few amenities included a movie theatre and volleyball court. Additionally, there was a mess hall, several water wells, and fuel storage tanks. By July 1955, CIA, Air Force, and Lockheed personnel began arriving. The Ranch received its first U-2 delivery on 24 July 1955 from Burbank on a C-124 Globemaster II cargo plane, accompanied by Lockheed technicians on a Douglas DC-3.[24] Regular Military Air Transport Service flights were set up between Area 51 and Lockheed's Burbank, California offices. To preserve secrecy, personnel flew to Nevada on Monday mornings and returned to California on Friday evenings.[25]:72
The 2nd YF-12A interceptor prototype at Groom Lake, Nevada (USAF Photograph)
An A-12 (60-6924) takes off from Groom Lake during one of the first test flights, piloted by Louis Schalk, 26 April 1962
OXCART program
For testing of a similar aircraft with 1st flight at the Palmdale, California, Lockheed facility in December 1964, followed by Edwards AFB flights (4200 SRW operations began at Beale AFB on 7 January 1966), see SR-71 Blackbird.
Project OXCART established in August 1959 for "antiradar
studies, aerodynamic structural tests, and engineering designs [and] all
later work on the" Lockheed A-12[27]
included testing at Groom Lake, which before improvements for OXCART
had inadequate facilities: buildings for only 150 people, a 5,000 ft
(1,500 m) asphalt runway, and limited fuel, hangar, and shop space.[23] Selected for its seclusion and climate, Groom Lake had received a new official name "Area 51"[23][verification needed]
when A-12 test facility construction began in September 1960, including
a new 8,500 ft (2,600 m) runway to replace the existing runway
(completed by 15 November 1960 with "expansion joints parallel to the
direction of aircraft roll" to limit vibration.)[28]Four years of "Project 51" construction began on 1 October 1960 by Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo) with double-shift construction schedules. The contractor upgraded base facilities and built a new 10,000 ft (3,000 m) runway (14/32) diagonally across the southwest corner of the lakebed. An Archimedes curve approximately two miles across was marked on the dry lake so that an A-12 pilot approaching the end of the overrun could abort to the playa instead of plunging the aircraft into the sagebrush. Area 51 pilots called it "The Hook". For crosswind landings two unpaved airstrips (runways 9/27 and 03/21) were marked on the dry lakebed.[29]
By August 1961, construction of the essential facilities was completed (3 surplus Navy hangars were erected on the base's north side—hangars 4, 5, and 6.) A fourth, Hangar 7, was new construction. The original U-2 hangars were converted to maintenance and machine shops. Facilities in the main cantonment area included workshops and buildings for storage and administration, a commissary, control tower, fire station, and housing. The Navy also contributed more than 130 surplus Babbitt duplex housing units for long-term occupancy facilities. Older buildings were repaired, and additional facilities were constructed as necessary. A reservoir pond, surrounded by trees, served as a recreational area one mile north of the base. Other recreational facilities included a gymnasium, movie theatre, and a baseball diamond.[29] A permanent aircraft fuel tank farm was constructed by early 1962 for the special JP-7 fuel required by the A-12. Seven tanks were constructed, with a total capacity of 1,320,000 gallons.
For the arrival of OXCART; security was enhanced and the small civilian mine[specify] in the Groom basin was closed. In January 1962, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) expanded the restricted airspace in the vicinity of Groom Lake. The lakebed became the center of a 600-square-mile addition to restricted area R-4808N.[29]
The CIA facility received eight USAF F-101 Voodoos for training, two T-33 Shooting Star trainers for proficiency flying, a C-130 Hercules for cargo transport, a U-3A for administrative purposes, a helicopter for search and rescue, and a Cessna 180 for liaison use; and Lockheed provided an F-104 Starfighter for use as a chase plane.[29]
The first A-12 test aircraft was covertly trucked from Burbank on 26 February 1962, arrived at Groom Lake on 28 February,[26] was assembled, and made its first flight 26 April 1962 when the base had over 1,000 personnel. Initially, all not connected with a test were herded into the mess hall before each takeoff. This was soon dropped as it disrupted activities and was impractical with the large number of flights.[23] The closed airspace above Groom Lake was within the Nellis Air Force Range airspace, and pilots saw the A-12 20-30 times (at least one signed a secrecy agreement.).[23]
Groom was also the site of the 1st Lockheed D-21 drone test flight on 22 December 1964 (not launched until 5 March 1966).[26] By the end of 1963, nine A-12s were at Area 51, assigned to the CIA operated "1129th Special Activities Squadron".[30]
Although it was decided[by whom?] on 10 January 1967 to phase out the CIA A-12 program, A-12s at Groom Lake occasionally deployed to Kadena AB, Okinawa, for Project Black Shield in 1967[26] (the 9 A-12s were stored at Palmdale in June 1968 and the 1129th SAS was inactivated.)[30]
D-21 Tagboard
Main article: Lockheed D-21
The D-21 mounted on the back of the M-21. Note the intake cover on the drone, which was used on early flights.
The first D-21 was completed in the spring of 1964 by Lockheed. After four more months of checkouts and static tests, the aircraft was shipped to Groom Lake and reassembled. It was to be carried by a two-seat derivative of the A-12, designated the "M-21". When the D-21/M-21 reached the launch point, the first step would be to blow off the D-21's inlet and exhaust covers. With the D-21/M-21 at the correct speed and altitude, the LCO would start the ramjet and the other systems of the D-21. With the D-21's systems activated and running, and the launch aircraft at the correct point, the M-21 would begin a slight pushover, the LCO would push a final button, and the D-21 would come off the pylon".[23]
Difficulties were addressed throughout 1964 and 1965 at Groom Lake with various technical issues. Captive flights showed unforeseen aerodynamic difficulties. By late January 1966, more than a year after the first captive flight, everything seemed ready. The first D-21 launch was made on 5 March 1966 with a successful flight, with the D-21 flying 120 miles with limited fuel. A second D-12 flight was successful in April 1966 with the drone flying 1,200 miles, reaching Mach 3.3 and 90,000 feet. An accident on 30 July 1966 with a fully fueled D-21, on a planned checkout flight suffered from a non-start of the drone after its separation, causing it to collide with the M-21 launch aircraft. The two crewmen ejected and landed in the ocean 150 miles offshore. One crew member was picked up by a helicopter, but the other, having survived the aircraft breakup and ejection, drowned when sea water entered his pressure suit. Kelly Johnson personally cancelled the entire program, having had serious doubts from the start of the feasibility. A number of D-21s had already been produced, and rather than scrapping the whole effort, Johnson again proposed to the Air Force that they be launched from a B-52H bomber.[23]
By late summer of 1967, the modification work to both the D-21 (now designated D-21B) and the B-52Hs were complete. The test program could now resume. The test missions were flown out of Groom Lake, with the actual launches over the Pacific. The first D-21B to be flown was Article 501, the prototype. The first attempt was made on 28 September 1967, and ended in complete failure. As the B-52 was flying toward the launch point, the D-21B fell off the pylon. The B-52H gave a sharp lurch as the drone fell free. The booster fired and was "quite a sight from the ground". The failure was traced to a stripped nut on the forward right attachment point on the pylon. Several more tests were made, none of which met with success. However, the fact is that the resumptions of D-21 tests took place against a changing reconnaissance background. The A-12 had finally been allowed to deploy, and the SR-71 was soon to replace it. At the same time, new developments in reconnaissance satellite technology were nearing operation. Up to this point, the limited number of satellites available restricted coverage to the Soviet Union. A new generation of reconnaissance satellites could soon cover targets anywhere in the world. The satellites' resolution would be comparable to that of aircraft, but without the slightest political risk. Time was running out for the Tagboard.[23]
Several more test flights, including two over China, were made from Beale AFB, California, in 1969 and 1970, to varying degrees of success. On 15 July 1971, Kelly Johnson received a wire canceling the D-21B program. The remaining drones were transferred by a C-5A and placed in dead storage. The tooling used to build the D-21Bs was ordered destroyed. Like the A-12 Oxcart, the D-21B Tagboard drones remained a Black airplane, even in retirement. Their existence was not suspected until August 1976, when the first group was placed in storage at the Davis-Monthan AFB Military Storage and Disposition Center. A second group arrived in 1977. They were labeled "GTD-21Bs" (GT stood for ground training).[23]
Davis-Monthan is an open base, with public tours of the storage area at the time, so the odd-looking drones were soon spotted and photos began appearing in magazines. Speculation about the D-21Bs circulated within aviation circles for years, and it was not until 1982 that details of the Tagboard program were released. However, it was not until 1993 that the B-52/D-21B program was made public. That same year, the surviving D-21Bs were released to museums.[23]
Foreign technology evaluation
Main article: Tonopah Test Range Airport
HAVE DOUGHNUT, (MiG-21F-13) flown by United States Navy and Air Force Systems Command during its 1968 exploitation.
This was not a new mission, as testing of foreign technology by the USAF began during World War II. After the war, testing of acquired foreign technology was performed by the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC, which became very influential during the Korean War), under the direct command of the Air Materiel Control Department. In 1961 ATIC became the Foreign Technology Division (FTD), and was reassigned to Air Force Systems Command. ATIC personnel were sent anywhere where foreign aircraft could be found.
The focus of Air Force Systems Command limited the use of the fighter as a tool with which to train the front line tactical fighter pilots.[31] Air Force Systems Command recruited its pilots from the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base, California, who were usually graduates from various test pilot schools. Tactical Air Command selected its pilots primarily from the ranks of the Weapons School graduates.[31]
In August 1966, Iraqi Air Force fighter pilot Captain Munir Redfa defected, flying his MiG-21 to Israel after being ordered to attack Iraqi Kurd villages with napalm. His aircraft was transferred to the Groom Lake within a month to study. In 1968 the US Air Force and Navy jointly formed a project known as Have Doughnut in which Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and the U.S. Navy's Air Test and Evaluation Squadron Four (VX-4) flew this acquired Soviet made aircraft in simulated air combat training.[31] Because U.S. possession of the Soviet MiG-21 was, itself, secret, it was tested at Groom Lake. A joint air force-navy team was assembled for a series of dogfight tests.[23]
Comparisons between the F-4 and the MiG-21 indicated that, on the surface, they were evenly matched. But air combat was not just about technology. In the final analysis, it was the skill of the man in the cockpit. The Have Doughnut tests showed this most strongly. When the Navy or Air Force pilots flew the MiG-21, the results were a draw; the F-4 would win some fights, the MiG-21 would win others. There were no clear advantages. The problem was not with the planes, but with the pilots flying them. The pilots would not fly either plane to its limits. One of the Navy pilots was Marland W. "Doc" Townsend, then commander of VF-121, the F-4 training squadron at NAS Miramar. He was an engineer and a Korean War veteran and had flown almost every navy aircraft. When he flew against the MiG-21, he would outmaneuver it every time. The Air Force pilots would not go vertical in the MiG-21. The Have Doughnut project officer was Tom Cassidy, a pilot with VX-4, the Navy's Air Development Squadron at Point Mugu. He had been watching as Townsend "waxed" the air force MiG-21 pilots. Cassidy climbed into the MiG-21 and went up against Townsend's F-4. This time the result was far different. Cassidy was willing to fight in the vertical, flying the plane to the point where it was buffeting, just above the stall. Cassidy was able to get on the F-4's tail. After the flight, they realized the MiG-21 turned better than the F-4 at lower speeds. The key was for the F-4 to keep its speed up. What had happened in the sky above Groom Lake was remarkable. An F-4 had defeated the MiG-21; the weakness of the Soviet plane had been found. Further test flights confirmed what was learned. It was also clear that the MiG-21 was a formidable enemy. United States pilots would have to fly much better than they had been to beat it. This would require a special school to teach advanced air combat techniques.[23]
On 12 August 1968, two Syrian air force lieutenants, Walid Adham and Radfan Rifai, took off in a pair of MiG-17Fs on a training mission. They lost their way and, believing they were over Lebanon, landed at the Beset Landing Field in northern Israel. (One version has it that they were led astray by an Arabic-speaking Israeli).[23] Prior to the end of 1968 these MiG-17s were transferred from Israeli stocks and added to the Area 51 test fleet. The aircraft were given USAF designations and fake serial numbers so that they could be identified in DOD standard flight logs. As in the earlier program, a small group of Air Force and Navy pilots conducted mock dogfights with the MiG-17s. Selected instructors from the Navy's Top Gun school at NAS Miramar, California, were chosen to fly against the MiGs for familiarization purposes. Very soon, the MiG-17's shortcomings became clear. It had an extremely simple, even crude, control system which lacked the power-boosted controls of American aircraft. The F-4's twin engines were so powerful it could accelerate out of range of the MiG-17's guns in thirty seconds. It was important for the F-4 to keep its distance from the MiG-17. As long as the F-4 was one and a half miles from the MiG-17, it was outside the reach of the Soviet fighter's guns, but the MiG was within reach of the F-4's missiles.[23]
The data from the Have Doughnut and Have Drill tests were provided to the newly formed Top Gun school at NAS Miramar. By 1970, the Have Drill program was expanded; a few selected fleet F-4 crews were given the chance to fight the MiGs. The most important result of Project Have Drill is that no Navy pilot who flew in the project defeated the MiG-17 Fresco in the first engagement. The Have Drill dogfights were by invitation only. The other pilots based at Nellis Air Force Base were not to know about the U.S.-operated MiGs. To prevent any sightings, the airspace above the Groom Lake range was closed. On aeronautical maps, the exercise area was marked in red ink. The forbidden zone became known as "Red Square".[23]
During the remainder of the Vietnam War, the Navy kill ratio climbed to 8.33 to 1. In contrast, the Air Force rate improved only slightly to 2.83 to 1. The reason for this difference was Top Gun. The Navy had revitalized its air combat training, while the Air Force had stayed stagnant. Most of the Navy MiG kills were by Top Gun graduates.[citation needed]
In May 1973, Project Have Idea was formed which took over from the older Have Doughnut, Have Ferry and Have Drill projects and the project was transferred to the Tonopah Test Range Airport. At Tonopah testing of foreign technology aircraft continued and expanded throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[31]
Area 51 also hosted another foreign materiel evaluation program called HAVE GLIB. This involved testing Soviet tracking and missile control radar systems. A complex of actual and replica Soviet-type threat systems began to grow around "Slater Lake", a mile northwest of the main base, along with an acquired Soviet "Barlock" search radar placed at Tonopah Air Force Station. They were arranged to simulate a Soviet-style air defense complex.
The Air Force began funding improvements to Area 51 in 1977 under project SCORE EVENT. In 1979, the CIA transferred jurisdiction of the Area 51 site to the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California. Mr. Sam Mitchell, the last CIA commander of Area 51, relinquished command to USAF Lt. Col. Larry D. McClain.
Have Blue/F-117 program
Underside view of Have Blue
F-117 flying over mountains
In 1978, the Air Force awarded a full-scale development contract for the F-117 to Lockheed Corporation's Advanced Development Projects. On 17 January 1981 the Lockheed test team at Area 51 accepted delivery of the first full Scale Development (FSD) prototype 79–780, designated YF-117A. At 6:05 am on 18 June 1981 Lockheed Skunk Works test pilot Hal Farley lifted the nose of YF-117A 79–780' off the runway of Area 51.[33]
Meanwhile, Tactical Air Command (TAC) decided to set up a group-level organization to guide the F-117A to an initial operating capability. That organization became the 4450th Tactical Group (Initially designated "A Unit"), which officially activated on 15 October 1979 at Nellis AFB, Nevada, although the group was physically located at Area 51. The 4450th TG also operated the A-7D Corsair II as a surrogate trainer for the F-117A, and these operations continued until 15 October 1982 under the guise of an avionics test mission.[33]
Flying squadrons of the 4450th TG were the 4450th Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "I Unit") activated on 11 June 1981, and 4451st Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "P Unit") on 15 January 1983. The 4450th TS, stationed at Area 51, was the first F-117A squadron, while the 4451st TS was stationed at Nellis AFB and was equipped with A-7D Corsair IIs painted in a dark motif, tail coded "LV". Lockheed test pilots put the YF-117 through its early paces. A-7Ds was used for pilot training before any F-117A's had been delivered by Lockheed to Area 51, later the A-7D's were used for F-117A chase testing and other weapon tests at the Nellis Range.
15 October 1982 is important to the program because on that date Major Alton C. Whitley, Jr. became the first USAF 4450th TG pilot to fly the F-117A.[33]
Although ideal for testing, Area 51 was not a suitable location for an operational group, so a new covert base had to be established for F-117 operations.[34] Tonopah Test Range Airport was selected for operations of the first USAF F-117 unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG).[35] From October 1979, the Tonopah Airport base was reconstructed and expanded. The 6,000 ft runway was lengthened to 10,000 ft. Taxiways, a concrete apron, a large maintenance hangar, and a propane storage tank were added.[36]
By early 1982, four more YF-117A airplanes were operating out of the southern end of the base, known as the "Southend" or "Baja Groom Lake". After finding a large scorpion in their offices, the testing team (Designated "R Unit") adopted it as their mascot and dubbed themselves the "Baja Scorpions". Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued at Area 51 until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. The F-117s were moved to and from Area 51 by C-5 under the cloak of darkness, in order to maintain program security. This meant that the aircraft had to be defueled, disassembled, cradled, and then loaded aboard the C-5 at night, flown to Lockheed, and unloaded at night before the real work could begin. Of course, this meant that the reverse actions had to occur at the end of the depot work before the aircraft could be reassembled, flight-tested, and redelivered, again under the cover of darkness. In addition to flight-testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots.
Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG.[37]
On 17 May 1982, the move of the 4450th TG from Groom Lake to Tonopah was initiated, with the final components of the move completed in early 1983. Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG at Tonopah. [37]
The R-Unit was inactivated on 30 May 1989. Upon inactivation, the unit was reformed as Detachment 1, 57th Fighter Weapons Wing (FWW). In 1990 the last F-117A (843) was delivered from Lockheed. After completion of acceptance flights at Area 51 of this last new F-117A aircraft, the flight test squadron continued flight test duties of refurbished aircraft after modifications by Lockheed. In February/March 1992 the test unit moved from Area 51 to the USAF Palmdale Plant 42 and was integrated with the Air Force Systems Command 6510th Test Squadron. Some testing, especially RCS verification and other classified activity was still conducted at Area 51 throughout the operational lifetime of the F-117. The recently inactivated (2008) 410th Flight Test Squadron traces its roots, if not its formal lineage to the 4450th TG R-unit. [37]
Later operations
F-22 during a Red Flag exercise with Groom Lake in the background (March 2013)
Legal status
U.S. government's positions on Area 51
A letter from the USAF replying to a query about Area 51
CIA document from 1967 referring to Area 51
Area 51 border and warning sign stating that "photography is prohibited"
and that "use of deadly force is authorized" under the terms of the
1950 McCarran Internal Security Act.
The USGS topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine.[41] A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, defined as part of the Nellis restricted airspace.[42] The National Atlas page showing federal lands in Nevada shows the area as lying within the Nellis Air Force Base.[43] Higher resolution (and more recent) images from other satellite imagery providers (including Russian providers and the IKONOS) are commercially available.[3] These show the runway markings, base facilities, aircraft, and vehicles.
When documents that mention the Nevada Test Site (NTS) and operations at Groom are declassified, mentions of Area 51 and Groom Lake are routinely redacted.[citation needed] One exception is a 1967 memo from CIA director Richard Helms regarding the deployment of three OXCART aircraft from Groom to Kadena Air Base to perform reconnaissance over North Vietnam. Although most mentions of OXCART's home base are redacted in this document, as is a map showing the aircraft's route from there to Okinawa, the redactor appears to have missed one mention: page 15 (page 17 in the PDF), section No. 2 ends "Three OXCART aircraft and the necessary task force personnel will be deployed from Area 51 to Kadena."[4]
In July 2013, CIA released an official history of the U-2 and OXCART projects that officially acknowledged the existence of Area 51. The release was in response to a Freedom of Information Act request submitted in 2005 by Jeffrey T. Richelson of George Washington University's National Security Archives, and contain numerous references to Area 51 and Groom Lake, along with a map of the area.[25][44][45][46]
Environmental lawsuit
Area 51 viewed from distant Tikaboo Peak
A closed-circuit TV camera watches over the perimeter of Area 51
Citing the State Secrets Privilege, the government petitioned trial judge U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (of the United States District Court for the District of Nevada in Las Vegas) to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security.[47] When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination, exempting what it called, "The Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Turley appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief that stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal,[48] and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case.
The President continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception.[49][50][51] This, and similarly tacit wording used in other government communications, is the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex.
An unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force web site in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information (information the government had claimed was classified). The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it.[52]
Civil Aviation identification
In December 2007, airline pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as "Homey Airport".[53] The probably inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases.[53]1974 Skylab photography
There were specific instructions not to do this. <redacted> was the only location which had such an instruction.Although the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake. As Day noted:
[I]n other words, the CIA considered no other spot on Earth to be as sensitive as Groom Lake.[54][55]The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should, and NASA and the State Department arguing against classification. The memo itself questions the legality of unclassified images to be retroactively classified.
Remarks on the memo,[56] handwritten apparently by DCI (Director of Central Intelligence) Colby himself, read:
[Secretary of State Rusk] did raise it—said State Dept. people felt strongly. But he inclined leave decision to me (DCI)—I confessed some question over need to protect since:The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The behind-the-scenes debate proved moot as the photograph appeared in the Federal Government's Archive of Satellite Imagery along with the remaining Skylab 4 photographs, with no record of anyone noticing until Day identified it in 2007.[57]
- USSR has it from own sats
- What really does it reveal?
- If exposed, don't we just say classified USAF work is done there?
That's the Theory 1
2. Weather control
Weather modding is the act of intentionally manipulating or altering the weather. The most common form of weather modification is cloud seeding to increase rain or snow, usually for the purpose of increasing the local water supply.[1] Weather modification can also have the goal of preventing damaging weather, such as hail or hurricanes, from occurring; or of provoking damaging weather against the enemy, as a tactic of military or economic warfare. Weather modification in warfare has been banned by the United Nations.
History
Wilhelm Reich performed cloudbusting experiments in the 1950s to 1960s, the results of which are controversial and not widely accepted by mainstream science.Dr Walter Russell wrote of weather control in Atomic Suicide 1956: "—give him complete power to cause rains, wherever he desires, on deserts or meadows and to dissipate cyclones while forming."
For the 2008 Olympics, China had plans to utilize 30 airplanes, 4,000 rocket launchers, and 7,000 anti-aircraft guns in an attempt to stop rain. Each system would shoot various chemicals into any threatening clouds in the hopes of shrinking rain drops before they reached the stadium.[2]
In January, 2011, several newspapers and magazines, including the UK's Sunday Times and Arabian Business, reported that scientists backed by the government of Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates, had created over 50 artificial rainstorms between July and August 2010 near Al Ain, a city which lies close to the country's border with Oman and is the second-largest city in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. The artificial rainstorms were said to have sometimes caused hail, gales and thunderstorms, baffling local residents.[3] The scientists reportedly used ionizers to create the rainstorms, and although the results are disputed, the large number of times it is recorded to have rained right after the ionizers were switched on during a usually dry season is encouraging to those who support the experiment.[4]
Cloud seeding
Cloud seeding
Main article: Cloud seeding
Cloud seeding is a common technique to enhance precipitation. Cloud
seeding entails spraying small particles, such as silver iodide onto
clouds in order to affect their development, usually with the goal of
increasing precipitation. Cloud seeding only works to the extent that
there is already water vapor present in the air. Critics generally
contend that claimed successes occur in conditions which were going to
lead to rain anyway. It is used in a variety of drought-prone countries,
including the United States, the People's Republic of China, India, and the Russian Federation.
In the People's Republic of China there is a perceived dependency upon
it in dry regions, and there is a strong suspicion it is used to "wash
the air" in dry and heavily polluted places, such as Beijing. In mountainous areas of the United States such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada,[5] cloud seeding has been employed since the 1950s.
Storm prevention
Hail cannons at an international congress on hail shooting held in 1901
Alexandre Chorin of the University of California, Berkeley, proposed dropping large amounts of environmentally friendly oils on the sea surface to prevent droplet formation.[8] Experiments by Kerry Emanuel[9] of MIT in 2002 suggested that hurricane-force winds would disrupt the oil slick, making it ineffective.[10] Other scientists disputed the factual basis of the theoretical mechanism assumed by this approach.[11] The Florida company Dyn-O-Mat and its CEO, Peter Cordani proposed the use of a patented product it developed, called Dyn-O-Gel, to reduce the strength of hurricanes. The substance is a polymer in powder form (a polyacrylic acid derivative) which reportedly has the ability to absorb 1,500 times its own weight in water. The theory is that the polymer is dropped into clouds to remove their moisture and force the storm to use more energy to move the heavier water drops, thus helping to dissipate the storm. When the gel reaches the ocean surface, it is reportedly dissolved. Peter Cordani teamed up with Mark Daniels and Victor Miller, the owners of a government contracting aviation firm AeroGroup which operated unique tactical aircraft. Using a high altitude B-57 Bomber, AeroGroup tested the substance dropping 9,000 pounds from the B-57 aircraft's large bomb bay disbursing it into a large thunderstorm cell just off the east coast of Florida. The tests were documented on film and made international news showing the storms were successfully removed on monitored Doppler radar. In 2003, the program was shut down because of political pressure through NOAA.[12] Numerical simulations performed by NOAA showed however that it would not be a practical solution for large systems like a tropical cyclone.[13]
Hail cannons have been used by some farmers since the 19th century in an attempt to ward off hail, but there is no reliable scientific evidence to confirm their effectiveness. Another new anti-hurricane technology[14] is a method for the reduction of tropical cyclones’ destructive force - pumping sea water into and diffusing it in the wind at the bottom of such tropical cyclone in its eyewall.
Hurricane modification
Various ideas for manipulating hurricanes have been suggested. In 2007, "How to stop a hurricane"[15] explored various ideas such as:- Using lasers to discharge lightning in storms which are likely to become hurricanes
- Pouring liquid nitrogen onto the sea to deprive the hurricane of heat energy.
- Creating soot to absorb sunlight and change air temperature and create convection currents in the outer wall.
In the military
In "Benign Weather Modification" published March 1997, Air Force Major Barry B. Coble superficially documents the existence of weather modification science where he traces the developments that have occurred, notably, in the hands of the Pentagon and CIA’s staunchest ideological enemies.- The first scientifically controlled and monitored effort generally recognized by the meteorological community as constituting weather modification occurred in 1948. When Dr. Irving Langmuir first experimented with artificially seeding clouds in order to produce rain, his experiments showed positive results - sparking tremendous interest in the field nearly overnight.[17]
- Many countries throughout the world practice weather modification. The Russians have long been interested in using weather modification as a way to control hail.[18]
- The Chinese recognize the value of weather modification and believe, incorrectly, that the US military continues to use weather as a weapon.[19]
In law
US and Canada agreement
In 1975, the US and Canada entered into an agreement under the auspices of the United Nations for the exchange of information on weather modification activity.[20]1977 UN Environmental Modification Convention
Main article: Environmental Modification Convention
Weather modification, particularly hostile weather warfare, was addressed by the "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72, TIAS 9614 Convention[21]
on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of
Environmental Modification Techniques." The Convention was signed in Geneva
on May 18, 1977; entered into force on October 5, 1978; ratified by
U.S. President Jimmy Carter on December 13, 1979; and the U.S.
ratification deposited at New York January 17, 1980.[22]US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
In the US, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration keeps records of weather modification projects on behalf of the Secretary of Commerce, under authority of Public Law 92-205, 15 USC § 330B, enacted in 1971.[23]Proposed US Legislation
2005 U.S. Senate Bill 517 and U.S. House Bill 2995 U.S. Senate Bill 517[24] and U.S. House Bill 2995[25] were two bills proposed in 2005 that would have expanded experimental weather modification, to establish a Weather Modification Operations and Research Board, and implemented a national weather modification policy. Neither were made into law. Former Texas State Senator John N. Leedom was the key lobbyist on behalf of the weather modification bills.2007 U.S. Senate Bill 1807 & U.S. House Bill 3445 Senate Bill 1807 and House Bill 3445, identical bills introduced July 17, 2007, proposed to establish a Weather Mitigation Advisory and Research Board to fund weather modification research[26][27]
In religion and mythology
The early modern era saw people observe that during battles the firing of cannons and other firearms often initiated precipitation.
In Greek mythology, Iphigenia was offered as a human sacrifice to appease the wrath of the goddess Artemis, who had becalmed the Achaean fleet at Aulis at the beginning of the Trojan War. In Homer's Odyssey, Aeolus, keeper of the winds, bestowed Odysseus and his crew with a gift of the four winds in a bag. However, the sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, looking for booty (money), and as a result were blown off course by the resulting gale.[28] In ancient Rome, the lapis manalis was a sacred stone kept outside the walls of Rome in a temple of Mars. When Rome suffered from drought, the stone was dragged into the city.[29] The Berwick witches of Scotland were found guilty of using black magic to summon storms to murder King James VI of Scotland by seeking to sink the ship upon which he travelled.[30] Scandinavian witches allegedly claimed to sell the wind in bags or magically confined into wooden staves; they sold the bags to seamen who could release them when becalmed.[31] In various towns of Navarre, prayers petitioned Saint Peter to grant rain in time of drought. If the rain was not forthcoming, the statue of St Peter was removed from the church and tossed into a river.[32]
3. Energy Weapons
A directed-energy weapon (DEW) emits highly focused energy, transferring that energy to a target to damage it.
Potential applications of this technology include anti-personnel weapon systems, potential missile defense system, and the disabling of lightly armored vehicles such as cars, drones, jet skis, and electronic devices such as mobile phones.[1][2]
The energy can come in various forms:
- Electromagnetic radiation, including radio frequency, microwave, lasers and masers
- Particles with mass, in particle-beam weapons
- Sound, in sonic weapons
Operational advantages
Laser weapons could have several main advantages over conventional weaponry:- DEWs can be used discreetly as radiation above and below the visible spectrum is invisible.[3][4]
- Laser beams travel at the speed of light, so evading an accurately aimed laser after it has been fired is impossible. Consequently, there is no need to compensate for target movement (except over extremely long distances).
- Light is only very slightly affected by gravity, so that long-range projection requires virtually no compensation. Other aspects such as wind speed can be neglected at most times, unless shooting through an absorptive matter.
- Lasers can change focusing configuration to provide an active area that can be much smaller or larger than projectile weaponry and fire at multiple targets simultaneously.
- Given a sufficient power source, laser weapons could essentially have limitless ammunition.
- Because light has a practically zero ratio of momentum to energy (exactly
), lasers produce negligible recoil. - Lasers and particle beams can be fired off axis without physically moving the beam emitter.
- Laser beams do not generate sound, so the weapon would not betray its user's position when fired.
- Lasers and particle beams can not be deflected or intercepted with point defense hard-kill countermeasures.
Types
Microwave weapons
Although some devices are labelled as Microwave Weapons, the microwave range is commonly defined as being between 300 MHz and 300 GHz which is within the RF range.[5] Some examples of weapons which have been publicized by the military are as follows:- Active Denial System is a millimeter wave source that heats the water in the target's skin and thus causes incapacitating pain. It is being used by the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory and Raytheon for riot-control duty. Though intended to cause severe pain while leaving no lasting damage, some concern has been voiced as to whether the system could cause irreversible damage to the eyes. There has yet to be testing for long-term side effects of exposure to the microwave beam. It can also destroy unshielded electronics: see TEMPEST (research into unintended electronic release of information).[6] The device comes in various sizes including attached to a humvee.
- Vigilant Eagle is an airport defense system that directs high-frequency microwaves towards any projectile that is fired at an aircraft.[7] The system consists of a missile-detecting and tracking subsystem (MDT), a command and control system, and a scanning array. The MDT is a fixed grid of passive infrared (IR) cameras. The command and control system determines the missile launch point. The scanning array projects microwaves that disrupt the surface-to-air missile's guidance system, deflecting it from the aircraft.[8]
- Bofors HPM Blackout is a high-powered microwave weapon system which is stated to be able to destroy at distance a wide variety of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) electronic equipment. It is stated to be not lethal to humans.[9][10][11]
- The effective radiated power (ERP) of the EL/M-2080 Green Pine radar makes it a possible candidate for conversion into a directed-energy weapon, by focusing pulses of radar energy on target missiles.[12] The energy spikes are tailored to enter missiles through antennas or sensor apertures where they can fool guidance systems, scramble computer memories or even burn out sensitive electronic components.[12]
- AESA radars mounted on fighter aircraft have been slated as directed energy weapons against missiles, however, a senior US Air Force officer was quoted noting: "they aren't particularly suited to create weapons effects on missiles because of limited antenna size, power and field of view".[13] Potentially lethal effects are produced only inside 100 metres range, and disruptive effects at distances on the order of one kilometre. Moreover, cheap countermeasures can be applied to existing missiles.[14]
General information on lasers
A USAF Boeing YAL-1 airborne laser
Laser weapons usually generate brief high-energy pulses. A one megajoule laser pulse delivers roughly the same energy as 200 grams of high explosive, and has the same basic effect on a target.
Most existing weaponized lasers are gas dynamic lasers. Fuel, or a powerful turbine, pushes the lasing media through a circuit or series of orifices. The high-pressures and heating cause the medium to form a plasma and lase. A major difficulty with these systems is preserving the high-precision mirrors and windows of the laser resonating cavity. Most systems use a low-powered "oscillator" laser to generate a coherent wave, and then amplify it. Some experimental laser amplifiers do not use windows or mirrors, but have open orifices, which cannot be destroyed by high energies.[citation needed]
Some lasers are used as non-lethal weapons, such as dazzlers which are designed to temporarily blind or distract people or sensors.
Electrolaser
Main article: Electrolaser
An electrolaser lets ionization occur, and then sends a powerful electric current down the conducting ionized track of plasma so formed, somewhat like lightning. It functions as a giant high energy long-distance version of the Taser or stun gun.Pulsed Energy Projectile
Main article: Pulsed energy projectile
Pulsed Energy Projectile or PEP systems emit an infrared laser pulse which creates rapidly expanding plasma
at the target. The resulting sound, shock and electromagnetic waves
stun the target and cause pain and temporary paralysis. The weapon is
under development and is intended as a non-lethal weapon in crowd
control.Examples
- In 1984 the Soviet Strategic Missile Troops military academy developed the first handheld laser weapon, intended for use by cosmonauts in outer space.
- In 1987 a Soviet laser-armed orbital weapon system, the 17F19DM Polyus/Skif-DM, failed during deployment.
- In 1991 scientists at the US Army Missile Command developed and field tested a ruggedized tunable laser emitting in yellow-orange-red part of the spectrum.[15]
- Made by Northrop Grumman:
- On March 18, 2009 Northrop Grumman announced that its engineers in Redondo Beach had successfully built and tested an electric laser capable of producing a 100-kilowatt ray of light, powerful enough to destroy cruise missiles, artillery, rockets and mortar rounds.[16] An electric laser is theoretically capable, according to Brian Strickland, manager for the United States Army's Joint High Power Solid State Laser program, of being mounted in an aircraft, ship, or vehicle because it requires much less space for its supporting equipment than a chemical laser.[17]
- On April 6, 2011, the U.S. Navy successfully tested a laser gun, manufactured by Northrop Grumman, that was mounted on the former USS Paul Foster, which is currently used as the navy's test ship. When engaged during the test that occurred off the coast of Central California in the Pacific Ocean test range, the laser gun was documented as having "a destructive effect on a high-speed cruising target," said Chief of Naval Research Admiral Nevin Carr.[18] While classified, the proposed range of the laser gun is measured in miles, not yards.
- Northrop Grumman has announced the availability of a high-energy solid-state laser weapon system that they call FIRESTRIKE, introduced on 13 November 2008. The system is modular, using 15 kW modules that can be combined to provide various levels of power.
- On 19 July 2010 an anti-aircraft laser described as the Laser Close-In Weapon System was unveiled at the Farnborough Airshow.[19]
- The ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System) is the first laser and the first energy weapon of any type to be used on a battlefield. It is used for neutralizing mines and unexploded ordnance.
- Laser Area Defense System.
- The Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser (MIRACL) is an experimental U.S. Navy deuterium fluoride laser and was tested against an Air Force satellite in 1997.
- In 2011, the U.S. Navy began to test the Maritime Laser Demonstrator (MLD), a laser for use aboard its warships.[20][21]
- In 2013 the U.S. began field testing a directed-energy weapon it calls the Laser Weapon System.[22]
- Personnel Halting and Stimulation Response, or PHaSR, is a non-lethal hand-held weapon developed by the United States Air Force[23] Its purpose is to "dazzle" or stun a target. It was developed by Air Force's Directed Energy Directorate.
- Tactical High Energy Laser (THEL) is a weaponized deuterium fluoride laser developed in a joint research project by Israel and the U.S. It is designed to shoot down aircraft and missiles. See also National missile defense.
- Soviet/Russian Beriev A-60: a CO2 gas laser mounted on an Ilyushin Il-76MD transport.
- The U.S. Air Force's Airborne Laser, or Advanced Tactical Laser, was a plan to mount a CO2 gas laser or COIL chemical laser on a modified Boeing 747 to shoot down missiles.[24][25]
- High Energy Laser-Mobile Demonstrator (HEL-MD) is a Boeing designed laser system mounted on a Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Truck. Its current power level is 10 kW, which will be boosted to 50 kW, and expected to eventually be upgraded to 100 kW. Targets that can be engaged are mortar rounds, artillery shells and rockets, unmanned aerial vehicles, and cruise missiles.[26] Lockheed Martin is developing a 60 kW fiber laser to mount on the HEL-MD that maintains beam quality at high power outputs while using less electricity than solid-state lasers.[27]
- Portable Efficient Laser Testbed (PELT)[28]
- Laser AirCraft CounterMeasures (ACCM)
- See also Electrolaser#Examples of electrolasers.
Problems
Existing methods of storing, conducting, transforming, and directing energy are inadequate to produce a convenient hand-held weapon. Existing lasers waste much energy as heat, requiring still-bulky cooling equipment to avoid overheating damage. Air cooling can yield an unacceptable delay between shots. These problems, which severely limit laser weapon practicality at present, might be offset by:- Cheap, high-temperature superconductors to make the weapon more efficient.
- More convenient high-volume electricity storage/generation. Part of the energy could be used to cool the device.
These problems could be lessened if the weapon were mounted either at a defensive position near a power plant, or on board a large, possibly nuclear powered, water-going ship, as it would have the advantage of plentiful water for cooling.
Blooming
See also: Thermal blooming
Laser beams begin to cause plasma breakdown in the atmosphere at energy densities of around one megajoule
per cubic centimetre. This effect, called "blooming," causes the laser
to defocus and disperse energy into the surrounding air. Blooming can be
more severe if there is fog, smoke, or dust in the air.Techniques that may reduce these effects include:
- Spreading the beam across a large, curved mirror that focuses the power on the target, to keep energy density en route too low for blooming to happen. This requires a large, very precise, fragile mirror, mounted somewhat like a searchlight, requiring bulky machinery to slew the mirror to aim the laser.
- Using a phased array. For typical laser wavelengths, this method would require billions of micrometre-size antennae. There is currently no known way to implement these, though carbon nanotubes have been proposed. Phased arrays could theoretically also perform phase-conjugate amplification (see below). Phased arrays do not require mirrors or lenses, and can be made flat and thus do not require a turret-like system (as in "spread beam") to be aimed, though range will suffer if the target is at extreme angles to the surface of the phased array.[29]
- Using a phase-conjugate laser system. This method employs a "finder" or "guide" laser illuminating the target. Any mirror-like ("specular") points on the target reflect light that is sensed by the weapon's primary amplifier. The weapon then amplifies inverted waves in a positive feedback loop, destroying the target with shockwaves as the specular regions evaporate. This avoids blooming because the waves from the target pass through the blooming, and therefore show the most conductive optical path; this automatically corrects for the distortions caused by blooming. Experimental systems using this method usually use special chemicals to form a "phase-conjugate mirror". In most systems, the mirror overheats dramatically at weapon-useful power levels.
- Using a very short pulse that finishes before blooming interferes.
- Focusing multiple lasers of relatively low power on a single target.
Evaporated target material
Another problem with weaponized lasers is that the evaporated material from the target's surface begins to shade the beam. There are several approaches to this problem:- Inducing a standing shockwave in the ablation cloud. The shockwave then continues to inflict damage.
- Scanning the target faster than the shockwave propagates.
- Inducing plasmic optical mixing at the target by modulating the transparency of the target's ablation cloud to one laser by another laser, perhaps by tuning the laser to the absorption spectra of the ablation cloud, and inducing population inversion in the cloud. The other laser then induces local lasing in the ablation cloud. The beat frequency that results can induce frequencies that penetrate the ablation cloud.
Beam absorption
A laser beam or particle beam passing through air can be absorbed or scattered by rain, snow, dust, fog, smoke, or similar visual obstructions that a bullet would easily penetrate. This effect adds to blooming problems and makes the dissipation of energy into the atmosphere worse.The wasted energy can disrupt cloud development since the impact wave creates a "tunneling effect". Engineers from MIT and the U.S. Army are looking into using this effect for precipitation management.
Lack of indirect fire capabilities
Indirect fire, as used in artillery warfare, can reach a target behind a hill, but is not feasible with line-of-sight DEWs. Possible alternatives are to mount the lasers (or perhaps just reflectors) on airborne or space-based platforms.Countermeasures
The Chinese People's Liberation Army has invested in the development of coatings that can deflect beams fired by U.S. military lasers. Lasers are composed of light that can be deflected, reflected, or absorbed by manipulating physical and chemical properties of materials. Artificial coatings can counter certain specific types of lasers, but if a different type was used than the coating was designed to handle it would be able to burn through it. Available information on a system's size, power consumption, major components, and laser generation methods can determine the type of laser beam and which type of coating. The coatings are made of several different substances including low-cost metals, rare earths, carbon fiber, silver, and diamonds that have been processed to fine sheens and tailored against specific laser weapon systems. China is developing anti-laser defenses because protection against them is considered far cheaper than creating competing laser weapons themselves; China is some 10 to 20 years behind the United States in development of laser weapons due to energy generation and storage problems.[30]Particle-beam weapons
Main article: Particle-beam weapon
Particle-beam weapons can use charged or neutral particles, and can be either endoatmospheric or exoatmospheric. Particle beams
as beam weapons are theoretically possible, but practical weapons have
not been demonstrated. Certain types of particle beams have the
advantage of being self-focusing in the atmosphere.Blooming is also a problem in particle-beam weapons. Energy that would otherwise be focused on the target spreads out; the beam becomes less effective:
- Thermal blooming occurs in both charged and neutral particle beams, and occurs when particles bump into one another under the effects of thermal vibration, or bump into air molecules.
- Electrical blooming occurs only in charged particle beams, as ions of like charge repel one another.
Plasma weapons
Main article: Plasma weapon
Plasma weapons fire a beam, bolt, or stream of plasma, which is an excited state of matter consisting of atomic electrons & nuclei and free electrons if ionized, or other particles if pinched.The MARAUDER (Magnetically Accelerated Ring to Achieve Ultra-high Directed-Energy and Radiation) used the Shiva Star project (a high energy capacitor bank which provided the means to test weapons and other devices requiring brief and extremely large amounts of energy) to accelerate a toroid of plasma at a significant percentage of the speed of light.[31]
Electric beam in a vacuum
In a vacuum (e.g., in space), an electric discharge can travel a potentially unlimited distance at a velocity slightly slower than the speed of light. This is because there is no significant electric resistance to the flow of electric current in a vacuum. This would make such devices useful to destroy the electrical and electronic parts of satellites and spacecraft. However, in a vacuum the electric current cannot ride a laser beam, and some other means must be used to keep the electron beam on track and to prevent it from dispersing: see particle beam.Speed of the weapon
The speed of the energy weapon is determined by the density of the beam. If it is very dense then it is very powerful, but a particle beam moves much slower than the speed of light. Its speed is determined by mass, power, density, or particle/energy density.Sonic weapons
Main article: Sonic weaponry
Cavitation, which affects gas nuclei in human tissue, and heating can
result from exposure to ultrasound and can damage tissue and organs.
Studies have found[citation needed]
that exposure to high intensity ultrasound at frequencies from 700 kHz
to 3.6 MHz can cause lung and intestinal damage in mice. Heart rate
patterns following vibroacoustic stimulation have resulted in serious
arterial flutter and bradycardia.
Researchers have concluded that generating pain through the auditory
system using high intensity sound risked permanent hearing damage.[citation needed]A multi-organization research program[32] involved high intensity audible sound experiments on human subjects. Extra-aural (unrelated to hearing) bioeffects on various internal organs and the central nervous system included auditory shifts, vibrotactile sensitivity change, muscle contraction, cardiovascular function change, central nervous system effects, vestibular (inner ear) effects, and chest wall/lung tissue effects. Researchers found that low frequency sonar exposure could result in significant cavitations, hypothermia, and tissue shearing. Follow-on experiments were not recommended.
Tests performed on mice show the threshold for both lung and liver damage occurs at about 184 dB. Damage increases rapidly as intensity is increased. Noise-induced neurological disturbances in humans exposed to continuous low frequency tones for durations longer than 15 minutes involved development of immediate and long-term problems affecting brain tissue. The symptoms resembled those of individuals who had suffered minor head injuries. One theory for a causal mechanism is that the prolonged sound exposure resulted in enough mechanical strain to brain tissue to induce an encephalopathy.[33]
History
Ancient inventors
Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse.
Main article: Archimedes § Heat ray
According to legend, the concept of the "burning mirror" or death ray began with Archimedes
who created a mirror with an adjustable focal length (or more likely, a
series of mirrors focused on a common point) to focus sunlight on ships
of the Roman fleet as they invaded Syracuse, setting them on fire.[34]
Historians point out that the earliest accounts of the battle did not
mention a "burning mirror", but merely stated that Archimedes's
ingenuity combined with a way to hurl fire were relevant to the victory.
Some attempts to replicate this feat have had some success; in
particular, an experiment by students at MIT showed that a mirror-based weapon was at least possible, if not necessarily practical.[35]Robert Watson-Watt
In 1935, the British Air Ministry asked Robert Watson-Watt of the Radio Research Station whether a "death ray" was possible. He and colleague Arnold Wilkins quickly concluded that it was not feasible, but as a consequence suggested using radio for the detection of aircraft and this started the development of radar in Britain. See: History of radar#Robert Watson-Watt.Engine-stopping rays
Engine-stopping rays are a variant that occurs in fiction and myth. Such stories were circulating in Britain around 1938. The tales varied but in general terms told of tourists whose car engine suddenly died and were then approached by a German soldier who told them that they had to wait. The soldier returned a short time later to say that the engine would now work and the tourists drove off. A possible origin of some of these stories arises from the testing of the television transmitter in Feldberg, Germany. Because electrical noise from car engines would interfere with field strength measurements, sentries would stop all traffic in the vicinity for the twenty minutes or so needed for a test. A distorted retelling of the events might give rise to the idea that a transmission killed the engine.[36]Modern automobile engines are not mechanically but electronically controlled. Disabling the electronics can indeed stop the engine. This has been implemented in OnStar, which has a remote control feature, but this is not a weapon. It is an add-on to the electronics of the car. Because a car is operating on a closed system, it would be impossible to use an electronic means of disengaging an engine, short of electrocuting it via laser or pulse weaponry. See also electromagnetic pulse (EMP), which is known for its engine-stopping effect, but is an undirected-energy weapon.
In 2015, Lockheed Martin reported a demonstration of the ATHENA Laser Weapons System that disabled the engine of a truck from a distance of one mile.[37]
Tesla
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), a noted inventor, scientist and electrical engineer, developed early high frequency technologies. Tesla worked on plans for a directed-energy weapon from the early 1900s until his death. In 1937, Tesla composed a treatise entitled The Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media concerning charged particle beams.[38]German World War II experimental weapons
During the early 1940s Axis engineers developed a sonic cannon that could cause fatal vibrations in its target body. A methane gas combustion chamber leading to two parabolic dishes pulse-detonated at roughly 44 Hz. This infrasound, magnified by the dish reflectors, caused vertigo and nausea at 200–400 metres (220–440 yd) by vibrating the middle ear bones and shaking the cochlear fluid within the inner ear. At distances of 50–200 metres (160–660 ft), the sound waves could act on organ tissues and fluids by repeatedly compressing and releasing compressive resistant organs such as the kidneys, spleen, and liver. (It had little detectable effect on malleable organs such as the heart, stomach and intestines.) Lung tissue was affected at only the closest ranges as atmospheric air is highly compressible and only the blood rich alveoli resist compression. In practice, the weapon system was highly vulnerable to enemy fire. Rifle, bazooka and mortar rounds easily deformed the parabolic reflectors, rendering the wave amplification ineffective.[39]In the later phases of World War II, Nazi Germany increasingly put its hopes on research into technologically revolutionary secret weapons, the Wunderwaffen.
Among the directed-energy weapons the Nazis investigated were X-ray beam weapons developed under Heinz Schmellenmeier, Richard Gans and Fritz Houtermans. They built an electron accelerator called Rheotron (invented by Max Steenbeck at Siemens-Schuckert in the 1930s, these were later called Betatrons by the Americans) to generate hard X-ray synchrotron beams for the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM). The intent was to pre-ionize ignition in aircraft engines and hence serve as anti-aircraft DEW and bring planes down into the reach of the FLAK. The Rheotron was captured by the Americans in Burggrub on April 14, 1945.
Another approach was Ernst Schiebolds 'Röntgenkanone' developed from 1943 in Großostheim near Aschaffenburg. The Company Richert Seifert & Co from Hamburg delivered parts.[40]
Microwave weapons were investigated together with the Japanese.
Strategic Defense Initiative
In the 1980s, U.S. President Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program, which was nicknamed Star Wars. It suggested that lasers, perhaps space-based X-ray lasers, could destroy ICBMs in flight. Panel discussions on the role of high-power lasers in SDI took place at various laser conferences, during the 1980s, with the participation of noted physicists including Edward Teller.[41][42]Though the strategic missile defense concept has continued to the present under the Missile Defense Agency, most of the directed-energy weapon concepts were shelved. However, Boeing has been somewhat successful with the Boeing YAL-1 and Boeing NC-135, the first of which destroyed two missiles in February 2010. Funding has been cut to both of the programs.
Iraq War
During the Iraq War, electromagnetic weapons, including high power microwaves, were used by the U.S. military to disrupt and destroy Iraqi electronic systems and may have been used for crowd control. Types and magnitudes of exposure to electromagnetic fields are unknown.[43]Alleged tracking of Space Shuttle Challenger
The Soviet Union invested some effort in the development of ruby and carbon dioxide lasers as anti-ballistic missile systems, and later as a tracking and anti-satellite system. There are reports that the Terra-3 complex at Sary Shagan was used on several occasions to temporarily "blind" US spy satellites in the IR range.It has been claimed that the USSR made use of the lasers at the Terra-3 site to target the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1984.[44][45] At the time, the Soviet Union were concerned that the shuttle was being used as a reconnaissance platform. On 10 October 1984 (STS-41-G), the Terra-3 tracking laser was allegedly aimed at Challenger as it passed over the facility. Early reports claimed that this was responsible for causing "malfunctions on the space shuttle and distress to the crew", and that the United States filed a diplomatic protest about the incident.[44][45] However, this story is comprehensively denied by the crew members of STS-41-G and knowledgeable members of the US intelligence community.[46]
Law enforcement
Dazzlers are devices used for temporarily blinding or stunning an attacker, or to stop a driver in a moving vehicle. Targets can also include mechanical sensors or aircraft. Dazzlers emit infrared or invisible light against various electronic sensors, and visible light against humans, when they are intended to cause no long-term damage to eyes. The emitters are usually lasers, making what is termed a laser dazzler. Most of the contemporary systems are human-portable, and operate in either the red (a laser diode) or green (a diode-pumped solid-state laser, DPSS) areas of the electromagnetic spectrum.Future
Currently, the technology is being considered for non-military use to protect Earth from asteroids.[47]Non-lethal weapons
The TECOM Technology Symposium in 1997 concluded on non-lethal weapons, "determining the target effects on personnel is the greatest challenge to the testing community", primarily because "the potential of injury and death severely limits human tests".[48]Also, "directed energy weapons that target the central nervous system and cause neurophysiological disorders may violate the Certain Conventional Weapons Convention of 1980. Weapons that go beyond non-lethal intentions and cause "superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering" may also violate the Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 1977."[49]
Some common bio-effects of non-lethal electromagnetic weapons include:
- Difficulty breathing
- Disorientation
- Nausea
- Pain
- Vertigo
- Other systemic discomfort.
Light and repetitive visual signals can induce epileptic seizures. Vection and motion sickness can also occur.
Cruise ships are known to use sonic weapons (such as LRAD) to drive off pirates.[50]
So you might ask why did you bring those information.
Well first the Air Force theory seems to be very real cause it explains allready everything.
But then you might see space ships (UFO) near or inside the Area 51 in google earth.
And yeah those futuristic testing aircraft weapons are bringing us to the Alien Ships form.
Why the weather control theory?
Well there is the technology known as HAARP wich makes the user or owner of it to manpulate or control the weather. And its belived that this powerful weapon is developed in Area 51.
Now comes up the Energy Weapons theory.
Its very interesting the facts that we are already coming up to that . But why do we think they are developed on Area 51. Well i don't know but that's where we don't know what happens and it seems weird stuff to happen there.
4Aliens and Area 51
Map of Area 51 in Nevada
Area 51
Dreamland
is the code name for Area 51. Area 51 is a
"secret" military base located about 90 miles north of Las Vegas,
Nevada. It is also known as Groom Lake, named for the dry lake bed the
military
base is sitting on. The size of the base is six miles wide by ten miles
long.
Recently the Federal government has seized an additional 85,000 acres
surrounding the base to keep observers at a distance.
Contained
somewhere on the grounds is a large air base
that the U.S. government will not discuss. It is considered so
sensitive that
only those who take an oath of secrecy for life are allowed in.
Civilian
contractors and others who work at the base are flown in every morning
aboard
unmarked planes with blacked-out windows. It is said that structures
are built
deep into the desert floor, with buildings going down thirty to forty
stories
below the surface.
Area 51 warning sign
Use
of Deadly Force
The perimeter of the base is covered with ground sensors and listening devices to detect even the smallest intrusion. It is also heavily patrolled by armed guards from the Wackenhut Corporation, a very serious private security firm. These guys aren't your normal rent-a-cops that local concert promoters use. In short, they will kill you. End of story.
The perimeter of the base is covered with ground sensors and listening devices to detect even the smallest intrusion. It is also heavily patrolled by armed guards from the Wackenhut Corporation, a very serious private security firm. These guys aren't your normal rent-a-cops that local concert promoters use. In short, they will kill you. End of story.
The
board of directors of the Wackenhut Corporation reads
like a Who's Who of the intelligence community. Here are some of the
guys who
are said to be or have been on the board:
Admiral Bobby Ray Inman
Former Deputy CIA Director and a bunch of other high military positions. If you know anything about the military, you know who this guy is.
Frank Carlucci
Former Deputy Director of the CIA.
General Joseph Carroll
Former DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency) Director.
Clarence Kelly
Former FBI Director.
James J. Rowley
Former Secret Service Director.
William Casey
Former CIA Director (deceased).
So,
What's the Big Deal?
Area 51 was first opened in 1955 as a testing facility for the U-2 spy plane being developed by Lockheed Aircraft. Area 51 has since become a popular symbol for the U.S. government Alien / UFO cover-up. Area 51 is supposedly where recovered alien spacecraft are being tested and reversed-engineered to learn how they work.
Area 51 was first opened in 1955 as a testing facility for the U-2 spy plane being developed by Lockheed Aircraft. Area 51 has since become a popular symbol for the U.S. government Alien / UFO cover-up. Area 51 is supposedly where recovered alien spacecraft are being tested and reversed-engineered to learn how they work.
S-4
S-4 is a parcel of land that is a part of Area 51. The most secret research actually takes place there. Or so we've been told.
Secret
Secret? Hardly. This military base is so well known that every school kid in America recognizes its name. It has been a part of most UFO researcher's vocabulary for decades. Every military power in the world is aware of Area 51. As part of an international treaty called the "Open Skies Treaty," the United States Government is required to fly other countries over the base upon demand. The U.S. government has reciprocal privileges for their bases. Not only that, but Area 51 is not just a U.S. base, it is an international base being run by a consortium of many countries.
SR71 Blackbird, originally developed and flown out of Area 51
Air
Surveillance Photos
Partly as a result of this arrangement there are literally thousands of air surveillance and satellite photographs available of this "secret" base. Russian surveillance photographs taken from their satellites of Area 51 are available to anyone over the Internet any day, anytime, for free! I have even included one for you in this chapter. This base may be many things, but one thing it's not is secret!
Satellite photo of Area 51
Partly as a result of this arrangement there are literally thousands of air surveillance and satellite photographs available of this "secret" base. Russian surveillance photographs taken from their satellites of Area 51 are available to anyone over the Internet any day, anytime, for free! I have even included one for you in this chapter. This base may be many things, but one thing it's not is secret!
Satellite photo of Area 51
The Mainstream Media Catches Up
In April 1994 Popular Science magazine featured a satellite photo of the Groom Lake base on the cover. The issue contained an article on the base and its history. This ignited mainstream media interest in learning more about Area 51. Even TV personality and broadcaster Larry King has gone to Area 51 and done a whole show from a set just outside the perimeter. If Larry King knows, how secret could it be?
Popular Mechanics Magazine cover
Aurora
Superplane
When I say Aurora, I'm not talking about your dad's Oldsmobile. The Aurora is a new kind of supersonic plane that allegedly flies out of Area 51. Its estimated cost: $15 billion! It runs on controlled explosions of cryogenic (real cold) methane or ammonia. Estimated speed: eight times the speed of sound, or around 6,000 miles per hour. It leaves a vapor trail from the engine's explosions that resemble donuts strung on a rope.
When I say Aurora, I'm not talking about your dad's Oldsmobile. The Aurora is a new kind of supersonic plane that allegedly flies out of Area 51. Its estimated cost: $15 billion! It runs on controlled explosions of cryogenic (real cold) methane or ammonia. Estimated speed: eight times the speed of sound, or around 6,000 miles per hour. It leaves a vapor trail from the engine's explosions that resemble donuts strung on a rope.
The
aerodynamics of the Aurora are reported to be very different
from conventional aircraft. Thus, the Aurora is a very dangerous craft
to fly
and has had an exceedingly high casualty rate.
Aurora Superplane over Groom Lake, Nevada (Area 51)
Lawsuit
May Lift the Veil of Secrecy
As reported in the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times, and on CBS's "60 Minutes," Area 51 is being sued. A number of workers at the base have exhibited strange symptoms, such as watching their skin turn flaming red and then fall off. Several have died recently and their relatives are suing the U.S. government. Other employees have come forward and stated that the base has engaged heavily in illegal toxic waste dumping and burning, resulting in the employee deaths.
As reported in the Wall Street Journal, the New York Times, and on CBS's "60 Minutes," Area 51 is being sued. A number of workers at the base have exhibited strange symptoms, such as watching their skin turn flaming red and then fall off. Several have died recently and their relatives are suing the U.S. government. Other employees have come forward and stated that the base has engaged heavily in illegal toxic waste dumping and burning, resulting in the employee deaths.
The
lawsuit and the allegations are serious. The
government is afraid the veil of secrecy about the very existence of
this base
could be lifted and is arguing that any disclosure about Area 51 could
pose a
"serious risk" to national security.
President Bill Clinton
President
Clinton's Response
Bill Clinton has signed an executive order exempting Area 51 (Groom Lake) from releasing its environmental reports to the public. See the full text of Clinton's executive order in the 'Documents' section.
Bill Clinton has signed an executive order exempting Area 51 (Groom Lake) from releasing its environmental reports to the public. See the full text of Clinton's executive order in the 'Documents' section.
Physicist Bob Lazar
Bob
Lazar
Physicist Bob Lazar has claimed he has worked on alien spacecraft at Area 51. Lazar says that nine alien saucers are housed there to learn how they work. (That's reverse-engineering, for all you techno-geeks.) Lazar's saga is long and controversial. After coming forward and making his statements, Lazar's records of employment and evidence of his attending school all disappeared. He was later indicted and plea-bargained on a charge of pandering and solicitation.
Physicist Bob Lazar has claimed he has worked on alien spacecraft at Area 51. Lazar says that nine alien saucers are housed there to learn how they work. (That's reverse-engineering, for all you techno-geeks.) Lazar's saga is long and controversial. After coming forward and making his statements, Lazar's records of employment and evidence of his attending school all disappeared. He was later indicted and plea-bargained on a charge of pandering and solicitation.
However,
Lazar was working as a bookkeeper at the time.
One of his clients was running a prostitution ring on the side. It was
well
established that Lazar was bookkeeping only for the client's legitimate
business and was not involved in his client's shady side business. It
was
evident from the beginning that the real target was Lazar.
Many
of the things Lazar initially said sounded
outlandish, but have since been confirmed by other sources.
Extraterrestrial Highway sign near Area 51 in Nevada
Jarod
2
Another Area 51 worker who goes by the name of Jarod 2 confirms Lazar's story. Supposedly, Jarod (pronounced Jay-rod) was the name given an alien who was housed at the base. The alias, Jarod 2, is a reference to this alien being.
Another Area 51 worker who goes by the name of Jarod 2 confirms Lazar's story. Supposedly, Jarod (pronounced Jay-rod) was the name given an alien who was housed at the base. The alias, Jarod 2, is a reference to this alien being.
Jarod
2 is a seventy-year old retired engineer. He says
he worked for thirty years designing reproductions of alien flying
saucers. He
also says he has seen gray alien beings during his work on the project.
Jarod 2
says his former employers have given him permission to speak
semi-publicly
about his experiences in order to help prepare the American public
about the
truth of alien existence. Jarod 2 states that the project is even more
advanced
than Lazar was aware of.
Well you've seem that i got the info from different web's.
But when i read the first and fourth theory my mind was blowing .
So keep reading and following my blog until someone kills me because of these posts i am doing haha.
Hope you enjoyed this blog
Tell what to leak about.
Also read :
http://aaron22072002.blogspot.com/
http://xbiosoftx.blogspot.com/
So comment down below what should i study next.
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